Humans are inherently vulnerable to many threats, including natural disasters, predatory animals, toxic plants, accidents, and violence. Pinker credits “human ingenuity” for decreasing risk in daily life by investigating different causes of injury and fatalities. He announces an intention to uncover in this chapter how people successfully lowered the rates of lethal accidents and violence, beginning with homicide. Homicide rates were high in Europe’s early middle ages but began to decrease as kingdoms became more stable and centralized in the 14th century. As trade increased across communities, a culture of dignity—earned through following a code of conduct—began replacing a “macho culture of honor” (169). In later centuries, law enforcement and the court system became more “professionalized,” helping decrease homicides and other violent crime. Pinker argues that many other countries—including England, the Netherlands, and Mexico—replicated this pattern, pointing to the pacifying effect of a central government and law enforcement.

He claims that one pessimistic view about violence is that it can never be reduced without eradicating its potential causes, such as poverty or racism. Pinker notes that this perspective ignores the pragmatic steps to address the symptoms of violence that have successfully lowered homicide rates. In addition, he notes that the causes of violence are complex and that treating the symptoms is easier than addressing the perceived causes.