In the second half of the 19th century, the Western United States experienced a period of major expansion, migration, and transformation. Between 1870 and 1900, almost 12 million people immigrated to the United States, and most of them came from Ireland, England, and Germany. Sparked by Lorimer W. Marshall’s discovery at Sutter’s Mill on January 24, 1848, the Gold Rush drew multitudes of settlers from eastern states and immigrants from China, Europe, and South America to California. As the state’s population grew rapidly, so did the price of land and goods: “In 1849, San Francisco’s population skyrocketed from 812 to 20,000 people. The cost of land soared—the same plot of land which had cost $16 in 1847, sold for $45,000 just eighteen months later” (“The Gold Rush.” Smithsonian American Art Museum, 2023). Technological innovations also played an important role in westward expansion. Railroads made the transportation of passengers and goods quicker and more cost-effective, a transcontinental telegraph system established in 1861 allowed messages to be sent in minutes, and advances in agricultural machinery helped settlers raise crops in the West’s dry, harsh climate.

The growth of white settlement, the resulting eradication of the buffalo, and brutalization by the United States government severely impacted Indigenous peoples.