Miracle at Philadelphia is a 1969 work of history by Catherine Drinker Bowen. It is a detailed account of the Constitutional Convention that took place from May to September 1787 in Philadelphia, resulting in the original drafting of the United States Constitution. It remains one of the most highly regarded popular accounts of the Convention, especially for its rich portraits of the delegates that provides a vivid sense of political debates and social life.

This study guide is based on the 1986 Little, Brown & Co. paperback edition.

Content Warning: This book discuses American slavery and cites some outmoded, potentially offensive language, particularly with respect to African Americans and Indigenous Americans.

Summary

In May 1787, Philadelphia was suffering a heat wave that would only become more severe in the ensuing months. The Constitutional Convention was largely the work of James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, who had both performed important logistical roles during the Revolutionary War and so had seen firsthand the severe limits of the Articles of Confederation, the agreement that outlined the then-government of the United States. They also managed to secure the attendance of George Washington, commanding general of the Continental Army, and Benjamin Franklin, the scientist and writer who was the most famous American in the world. A total of 55 delegates would eventually come from 12 states (Rhode Island declined to participate), although they often struggled to reach a quorum, and never had full participation. There was a widespread understanding that the Congress established under the Articles lacked essential powers without the full and unanimous support of all states, which was nearly impossible to achieve as they each pursued their own territorial and commercial interests. At the same time, there were few who had the time or ability to spend months away from home, especially when the legal remit to make a new government was unclear, if not dubious.

For those who did arrive and offer sustained participation, the disagreements proved intense from early on. To provide a template for debate, Virginia’s Edmund Randolph put forth a plan with many of the basic features that would later enter the Constitution, such as a single executive, a bicameral legislature, and a federal judiciary. These basic features ultimately won acceptance, especially when a rival plan with a plural executive, unicameral legislative, and no judiciary found little support. Yet the broad acceptance of the so-called Virginia Plan intensified debate over specifics, especially on the matter of representation. Many delegates, especially those from large states like New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, wanted proportional representation based on the population of the various states, while those from smaller states wanted equal representation in the legislature for each state. After weeks of debate, a compromise brokered by Roger Sherman of Connecticut apportioned proportional representation in the House of Representatives and equal state delegates for all states in the Senate. Several other subjects remained open for debate, including the terms of election for the president, the inclusion of additional states on equal grounds to the original 13, and the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. Many of the details on the specific powers of Congress and the presidency were settled by committees rather than open-floor debate. A few delegates refused to sign the Constitution, including Randolph. Debate then passed to special ratifying conventions within the states (not the state legislatures). Delaware was the first to ratify, with Pennsylvania and several smaller states following in rapid succession. The Constitution went into effect with the approval of nine states in June 1788, and holdouts like Virginia and New York finally caved, with diehard opponent Rhode Island being the last of the 13 states to accede a full year later.