The mid-19th century in Russia was a time of change in all areas of society. Cultural and literary traditions, political organization, education and women’s rights, and philosophical ideals were up for debate. As a socially engaged writer, Dostoevsky responds to many of these debates in his work.

One of the main areas of debate at this time was Russia’s relationship with Europe. The intellectuals of Dostoevsky’s day fell into two camps: the Slavophiles and the Westernizers. The Slavophiles believed Russia had a completely different culture and set of values than Europe and should not cling to European culture, ideals, or literary models. The Westernizers were in favor of integrating European ideas, particularly rationalism, modernization, and liberal politics, into Russian society. Slavophiles believed in a religion-centered society based on the premodern values of Russian peasants and Orthodox Christianity, while Westernizers preferred a society based on the Enlightenment reforms instituted by Peter the Great (1682-1725) and the “enlightened despot” Catherine the Great (1762-96). The tsar of Dostoevsky’s day was Alexander II, who ruled from 1855 until 1881. He is known as the “Great Reformer” for freeing the serfs—Russia’s enslaved peasant class—in 1861.

Dostoevsky was a Slavophile when he wrote Notes from Underground, but he was previously a Westernizer.