On Liberty is a philosophical essay on ethics, society, and politics published in 1859 by the English philosopher John Stuart Mill. His work on the subject matter extended back several years, through an illustrious career as a politician and philosopher. Mill’s ideas center on the concept of utilitarianism, which emphasizes efficiency and collective well-being. The book remains in print in the 21st century.

Summary

On Liberty is divided into five chapters: an introduction; “On the liberty of thought and discussion”; “On individuality as one of the elements of well-being”; “On the limits to the authority of society over the individual”; and a set of “Applications” of these principles to various issues including economics and education.

Mill favors individualism and is suspicious of powerful governments and states that allow citizens and subjects to exert power over people who possess unpopular beliefs and opinions. He opens his argument with an overview of the tyranny of government, which too easily obstructs the liberty of its citizens, and the tyranny of a society outside the context of government that rules through majority opinions. He elaborates on an ongoing struggle between authority and liberty, citing inherent human rights and the danger of tyrannical majority rule—a sentiment embraced and demanded by society at large but not actually good or right—even in democratic systems. He prefers every individual to be sovereign, with external governing only used to prevent direct harm committed by an individual against others.

Mill also champions diverse opinions, since they stem from individuality. Even false ideas, he suggests, benefit the common good because they contribute to thoughtful discussions that might result in valuable truths. Diversity of opinion and perspective produces creativity and enriches culture. Mill calls for an embrace of these priorities, especially in British culture and countries, as Mill is English.

His commitment to individual self-rule is such that he endorses a person’s liberty to inflict harm against oneself, though not against anyone else. He discusses “vice” as a personal matter unless an individual’s vices cause outward harm. Mill does not worry, however, that such individual liberty will result in decreased public good. When allowed to be masters of themselves free from coercion, people will tend towards good and responsible social impacts.

When he discusses the “applications” of his ideas, Mill continues to stress the danger of government and the rightful authority of the individual even in cases that, he admits, might involve society as a whole. For example, he acknowledges a social nature to the economy but insists that markets should be left alone. He also thinks that schooling should be conducted privately rather than be sponsored by the state, but that education should be compulsory. In the applications, Mill outlines reasonable areas of societal or governmental interference, and he supports things like certain types of taxes, probation, and increasing fines for repeated offenses.

In cases where an individual causes harm, Mill insists that punishment should target the consequences of a person’s actions, not the action itself. In effect, this formulation would mean that an individual with a particular, harmful vice or behaviors might be prevented from continuing to exercise relevant personal liberties, but society as a whole needn’t forbid actions or behaviors just because they might result in harm if abused.

Mill concludes by stating that a functional society, and even a productive government, depends on the worth and utility of each individual that composes it.

Intellectuals received On Liberty well after its publication, though some criticisms support stronger governments and would grant fewer universal freedoms to citizens that might abuse them. Mill’s philosophies became central tenets of British liberalism in the late 19th century and have maintained publicity and clout in British and American liberal ideology in ensuing centuries.