The Argumentative Indian is a reexamination of India’s intellectual history, guiding readers through the diverse philosophical and cultural discourse that has shaped the nation’s identity. Sen starts with the ancient period, focusing on the Vedas and the Upanishads—foundational texts that have shaped Indian culture, religion, and philosophy. The Vedas are a body of knowledge that includes hymns, rituals, and commentaries, forming the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism. The Upanishads are philosophical texts that explore the concepts introduced in the Vedas, which Sen argues emphasize the importance of debate and the use of reason to arrive at spiritual truths. Sen points out that these discussions were not just academic but inform a way of life, encouraging vibrant intellectual debate and a tradition of questioning established norms, highlighting the theme of A History of Religious Pluralism Shaping Identity and Public Discourse.

As he moves to the Mauryan and Gupta periods, Sen touches on two of India’s great empires known for their contributions to the arts, sciences, and philosophy. During these times, India saw the rise of Buddhism and Jainism, religions that offered alternative philosophical views and practices stemming from the Vedic tradition and, as Sen emphasizes, encouraged open debate on spiritual matters.