This chapter opens with an anecdote from an academic conference. Graff and Birkenstein describe a lecture they attended, delivered by a speaker who talked about the good work of sociologist “Dr. X.” However, the speaker didn’t clarify why he was talking about Dr. X’s work, which left Graff and Birkenstein confused. Graff and Birkenstein note that their confusion illustrates the need for a writer to indicate “clearly not only what his or her thesis is, but also what larger conversation that thesis is responding to” (20).

Graff and Birkenstein remind us that, when we develop arguments, we are “entering a conversation.” This means that we need to share that conversation’s context with our audience. They explain the concept of a “they say,” which is the point a writer is responding to—literally it is what “they” (other people) say.

For Graff and Birkenstein, an argument is not complete without the inclusion of contextualizing information. While they acknowledge “that not all texts follow this practice, [we] think it’s important for all writers to master it before they depart from it” (21). They believe that a writer’s well-defined

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